©McGraw-HillEducationAllrightsreservedAuthorizedonlyforinstructoruseintheclassroomNoreproductionorfurtherdistributionpermittedwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGraw-HillEducationCHAPTER 2
Sociological Research
Sociology in Modules,
Richard T. Schaefer
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Chapter Modules
• Module 5 What Is the Scientific Method?
• Module 6 Major Research Designs
• Module 7 Ethics of Research
• Module 8 Developments of Methodology
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Sociological Research
• Subject? Social phenomena, people & groups, social facts, social
process, social institutions,social structures, social construction of
reality, social patterns…. Etc.
• How ppl act, think, feel, and interact in a certain period of time and
in specific situation or context. How social structures are involved in
the life of individuals and groups. How society is organized and how it
changes…etc.
• Sociologists study society scientifically by following a methodological
approach =/= common sense or prejudgments and stereotypes.
• Sociologists explain the Why and the How society is ordered (
assumption. The goal of research is to develop scientific laws,
theories, and observations about society. Sociologist look for the
nature and the causes of the patterns in society and groups that we
can observe. E.g., patterns of divorce, marriage, addiction, suicide…
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Module 5 What Is the Scientific Method?
• Scientific method: a systematic, organized series
of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem. Science is a cyclic
process.
1. Defining the problem
2. Reviewing the literature
3. Formulating a testable hypothesis
4. Selecting the research design and then collecting and
analyzing data
5. Developing the conclusion
• A report is then prepared, with an executive summary
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Figure 5-1 The Scientific Method
The scientific method allows sociologists to objectively and logically evaluate
the data they collect. Their findings can suggest ideas for further sociological
research.
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Defining the Problem
• Any research starts with a question.
• how schooling relates to income?
• Operational definition: explanation of an abstract concept
that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the
concept . What it is to be observed and how we will measure it. Listing
characteristics or attributes of variable to be able to test and measure
• Abstract—–> specific, concrete observations
• Gender, Women, Men. Amount of hrs spent studying for sociology class= 0 h to 5 h
• Status= membership in social club
• Prejudice= person’s unwilling to hire or work with members of minority group
• Altruism= giving money( charity), giving blood,….
• Does it pay to get a college degree ? We need to define earnings and level
of education. Education = numbers of years and earnings = income
• Religiosity and suicide ( Durkheim)
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Reviewing the Literature
• Literature review consists of relevant scholarly
studies and information.
– Refine the problem. Other factors (statuses of parents)
– Clarify possible techniques for collecting data. State by
state income.
– Eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes (the search for
understanding reality is uncertain and unending)
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Formulating the Hypothesis
• Hypothesis: speculative statement about the
relationship between two or more factors known as
variables
• Variable: measurable trait or characteristic subject to
change under different conditions.
– Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or
influence another
– Dependent variable: variable whose action depends on
influence of the independent variable( effect)
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Formulating the Hypothesis (2)
• Causal logic: involves a relationship between a
condition or variable and a particular consequence,
with one leading to the other. See p.33
• X —–> Y .
• Correlation: exists when change in one variable
coincides with change in the other.
– Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation
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Collecting and Analyzing Data
• Selecting the Sample
– Sample: selection from a larger population( target) that is
statistically representative (list of all cases) of that population
– Random sample: when every member of an entire population
being studied has the same chance of being selected. The whole
population must be available for selection, if not the sample will not be random
– Snowball or convenience samples: participants recruited through
word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet. When it is
hard to find or identify. such as illegal drug users
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Collecting and Analyzing Data (2)
• Ensuring Validity and Reliability
– Research results must be both valid and reliable
– Validity: degree to which a measure or scale truly
reflects the phenomenon being studied. Am I measuring what
I intended to measure? Discrimination or prejudice ?
– Reliability: extent to which a measure produces
consistent results. How stable and consistent my results are? If a
same research is repeated by another sociologist, will he gets the same
results?
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Developing the Conclusion
• Supporting Hypotheses
– Sociological studies do not always generate data that
support the original hypothesis
– Sociologists interested in both the general pattern that
emerges from data and exceptions to that pattern
• Controlling for Other Factors
– Control variable: factor held constant in order to test the
relative impact of an independent variable
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In Summary:
The Scientific Method
• Defining the problem
• Reviewing the literature
• Formulating a hypothesis
• Collecting and analyzing data
• Developing the conclusion
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The Scientific Method, Example
• Example: Does it “pay” to go to college?
– Operational definitions: education and earnings
– Review of state-by state comparisons of income and educational
levels
– Hypothesis: The higher one’s educational degree, the more
money one will earn
• Variables: ++ level of education—-> ++ level of income
– Information collected from Census Bureau survey (secondary data)
– Conclusion: People with more schooling do earn more money
than others, although there are exceptions to the general pattern
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Causal Logic Figure 5-3
• In causal logic, an independent
variable (often designated by the
symbol x) influences a dependent
variable (often designated as y)
• Thus, x leads to y
• For example, parents who attend
church regularly (x) are more
likely to have children who are
churchgoers (y)
Independent
variable x
→
Dependent
variable y
Level of
educational degree → Level of income
Degree of lack of
integration into
society
→
Likelihood of
suicide
Availabilityof
affordable housing →
Level of
homelessness
Parents’ church
attendance →
Children’s church
attendance
Time spent
preparing for quiz →
Performance on
quiz
Parents’ income →
Likelihood of
children’s enrolling
in college
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Module 6 Major Research Designs
• Research design: detailed plan or method for
obtaining data scientifically
– Surveys
– Ethnography
– Experiments
– Existing sources
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Surveys
• Survey: study, generally interview or questionnaire,
that provides sociologists with information about
how people think and act
– Interview: researcher obtains information through
face-to-face, phone, or online questioning
– Questionnaire: researcher uses a printed or written form
to obtain information from a respondent
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Surveys (2)
• Quantitative research: collects and reports data
primarily in numerical form. We ask in this terms:
How many? How much? How often?
• Qualitative research: relies on what is seen in field
and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small
groups and communities. We use In-depth
interviews and direct observations and participation
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Ethnography
• Ethnography: study of an entire social setting through
extended systematic fieldwork. Qualitative , descriptive.
• Ethno: ppl & graphy: writing
• Observation: the basic technique of ethnography; direct
participation in closely watching a group or organization
– Ethnographic research also includes collecting historical
information and conducting in-person interviews
– Participant observation: method in which the sociologist joins a
group for a period to get an accurate sense of how it operates
– Street corner society, William F. Whyte .
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Experiments
• Experiment: artificially created situation that allows
a researcher to manipulate variables. The independent
variable is controlled.
– Experimental group: exposed to an independent variable
– Control group: not exposed to the independent variable
– Hawthorne effect: unintended influence of the observers
of experiments on the subjects. Western Electric CO
20/30s
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Use of Existing Sources
• Secondary analysis: research techniques that make
use of previously collected and publicly accessible
information and data
– Considered nonreactive—not influencing people’s
behavior
– Durkheim’s data on suicide is an example of secondary
analysis
• Content analysis: systematic coding and objective
recording of data, guided by some rationale
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Table 6-2 Existing Sources Used In Sociological Research
SOURCE: Developed by author Richard T. Schaefer.
Most Frequently Used Sources
• Census data
• Crime statistics
• Birth, death, marriage, divorce,
and health statistics
Other Sources
• Newspapers and periodicals
• Personal journals, diaries, e-mail, and letters
• Records and archival material of religious
organizations, corporations, and other
organizations
• Transcripts of radio programs
• Motion pictures and television programs
• Web pages, blogs, and chat rooms
• Song lyrics
• Scientific records (such as patent applications)
• Speeches of public figures (such as politicians)
• Votes cast in elections or by elected officials on
specific legislative proposals
• Attendance records for public events
• Videos of social protests and rallies
• Literature, including folklore
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Table 6-3 Major Research Designs
SOURCE: Developed by author Richard T. Schaefer.
Survey Ethnography Experiment
Existing sources/
Secondary analysis
Examples:
questionnaires,
interviews
Example: observation Example: deliberate
manipulation of
people’s social
behavior
Example: analysis of
census or health data
Advantage: Yields
information about
specific issues
Advantage: Yields
detailed information
about specific groups or
organizations
Advantage: Yields
direct measures of
people’s behavior
Advantage:
Cost-efficient
Limitation: Can be
expensive and timeconsuming
Limitation: Involves
months if not years of
labor-intensive data
Limitations: Ethical
limitations on the
degree to which
subjects’ behavior can
be manipulated
Limitation: Limited to
data collected for
some other purpose
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Module 7 Ethics of Research
• Code of ethics: standards of acceptable behavior
developed by and for members of a profession
• ASA’s Code of Ethics (1997)
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
2. Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity
3. Protect subjects from personal harm
4. Preserve confidentiality
5. Seek informed consent when data are collected from research
participants or when behavior occurs in a private context
6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance
7. Disclose all sources of financial support (1999)
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Value Neutrality
• Value neutrality: Max Weber’s term for objectivity
of sociologists in the interpretation of data
• Investigators have an ethical obligation to accept
research findings even when data run counter to
their personal views, to theoretically-based
explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs
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The Data-Rich Future
• Massive increases in available data allow sociologists
to undertake new research
– Housing issues in Boston
– Spread of influenza and other contagious diseases
– Crime patterns
• Increased data raises concerns about individual
privacy
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Appendix I:
Using Statistics and Graphs
• Using Statistics
– Percentage: a portion of 100
– Mean: average; sum of a series of values divided by the
number of values. Always leans toward extreme score
– Mode: single most common value in a series of values.
Score that occurs the most times.
– Median: midpoint that divides a series of values into two
groups with equal numbers of values. To calculate the
median, scores must be arranged, then count down or up.
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Appendix I:
Using Statistics and Graphs (2)
• Reading Graphs
– Tables and figures allow social scientists to display data
and make it easier to develop conclusions
• Cross-tabulation: shows relationship between two or more
variables
– Graphs are often easier for the public to understand
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Figure A-2 Changing Attitudes
Toward the Legalization of Marijuana
A quick look at the results of 16 national surveys shows that support for legalization
of the drug has increased.
Source: Gallup 2014; see Jones and Saad. 2014.
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Figure A-3 People Who Favor Legalization of
Marijuana by Political Affiliation and Age
Through cross-tabulation, we can quickly see that older people are less likely
to favor the legalization of marijuana than younger people, and that
Republicans are less supportive of legalization than Democrats.
Source: Gallup 2012; see Newport 2012.
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Appendix II:
Writing a Research Report
• Finding Information
– Check textbooks
– Use library’s online catalog
– Investigate computerized periodical indexes
– Examine government documents
– Use newspapers
– Ask people, organizations, and agencies concerned with
the topic
– Consult instructor or reference librarian
– Be cautious in using the Internet
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• Sociologists are committed to the use of the
scientific method
• In this chapter:
– Basic principles of scientific method
– Various techniques used by sociologists in conducting
research
