make a 100 word peer response to each of this paragraphs, does not need to have fancy words, make it sound as human as possible, peer to peer. you can put suggestions/ advice on to to make it better or even ask questions.
What made it possible for Philip II and Alexander the Great to conquer the Greek World, where the much larger Persian Empire had failed?
1. Philip II and Alexander the Great were able to do what the Persian Empire failed to do. Even though the numbers of Philip II and Alexander didn’t compare to that of the Persian Empire, Philip II and Alexander the Great had what the Persian Empire didn’t, which was a combination of better and more effective military and political strategies. Around 364 BCE Philip II returned to Macedon after being held hostage in Thebes for several years, in which he assumed the throne as King Philip of Macedonia in 359 BCE. Prior to this Philip would grasp the attention of a military reformer who would end up spilling most of the knowledge of war and warfare strategies on to Philip, that would lead to his great success later down the line. According to the course material, “While there, he caught the eye of the military reformer, Epaminondas, who took the prince under his wing…As soon as he came to power, Philip began transforming the Macedonian military into a more successful model of what he had seen at Thebes. Philip further lengthened the already-long spears used by the Thebans, creating the Macedonian sarissa, a spear of about eighteen feet in length—double that of the traditional Greek hoplite spear.”. Along with many battles fought resulting in great victory furthered their campaign. The Battle of Chaeronea, in particular, was one of those great victories that gave Philip II and Alexander the Great a huge foothold on the stepping stones into Greece. As stated in the course material, “King Philip also adopted the Theban wedge formation and added heavy cavalry to the line, thus incorporating the Macedonians’ strongest element into the phalanx.”. This is a prime example of the military strategies that were implemented by Philip II. He would go on for many years with this same tactic and take over with numerous victories throughout mainland Greece. During the Battle of Chaeronea Philip II and his army of Macedonians successfully utilized this strategy once again for a very important and historical victory, and he did so alongside his teenage son, Alexander the Great.
2. The Persian Wars unified the solitary Greek city-states against a common enemy, The Persians. Each individual Greek City-State realized that they could not fight Persia on their own and had to swallow nationalistic pride and unify behind the other Greek City-states.  Athens emerged as a cultural and naval powerhouse, and established the Delian League as a measure to protect against further Persian threats but soon the Delian league became the foundation for a united Greece, transforming it into an empire. This success enabled Athens’ Golden Age, with advances in all their government and economy. Sparta’s dominance at battles like Thermopylae solidified its reputation as the main land military power. However, Athens’ growing economic and governmental influence threatened the balance of power, causing friction between Athens and Sparta that would later become the catalyst in the Peloponnesian War.
The Peloponnesian War stemmed from this escalating rivalry, as Sparta and its allies opposed Athens’ imperial ambitions and dominance over the Delian League. The civil war caused widespread destruction, economic strain, and loss of life, especially in Athens, which ultimately succeeded to Sparta and its allies in 404 BCE. Sparta briefly established rule and control over Greece, but internal conflicts and lack of resources left it unable to maintain this dominance. The war ultimately weakened the Greek city-states, paving the way for Macedonian conquest. The two wars are connected, the Persian Wars brought temporary unity and a rise in Athenian power, while the Peloponnesian War highlighted Greece’s internal divisions, leading to a fractured and vulnerable Greek world.
3. Early Germanic peoples occupied an area of modern-day France and Germany, referred to as Gaul by the Romans. “Subsequent emperors would be Germans and the power base of this empire would be firmly Central European… The rulers called themselves Roman emperors and consider themselves the successors to Charlemagne, and thus, to the Roman Empire.” (UMGC, 2024) This territory was ruled by a singular emperor named King Otto the First. He modeled his system of government after the Roman empire, specifically the part under Charlemagne’s rule. “Otto was the most powerful ruler in Europe besides the Byzantine emperor. His empire covered most of the German-speaking lands of Central Europe.” (UMGC, 2024) King Otto the First was very power and thus was able to establish his kingdom in a manner that he wanted. He deposed the Pope, which was an early, foundational cause of the later great schism. This separation from the church in Rome ignited later debates and power struggles between European powers.
The spread of Germanic peoples also brought Christianity to further parts of Europe. “To the northeast, Christendom continued to expand. In the forests and bogs around the Baltic Sea, German-speaking crusaders (as well as Danes) conquered the heathen peoples…” (UMGC, 2024) This, combined with other empires efforts, culminated in the vast majority of Europe being under Christian control. The culture of the Germanic peoples overshadowed and replaced native cultures and in later centuries Germany became the birthplace of Protestantism. Modern Europe and by extension modern America are influenced heavily by the culture of early Germanic peoples.
4. The adoption of Christianity in the Roman Empire was a complex process influenced by a variety of factors. The Roman Empire was in a state of crisis during the third century CE, with widespread social and political unrest. This led many people to seek spiritual comfort and certainty, which was offered by Christianity. Christianity’s appeal was further enhanced by its ability to absorb and displace other belief systems, as well as it’s internal flexibility, which allowed it to adapt to different cultures and social contexts. The adoption of Christianity in the Roman empire was a complex process driven by a combination of factors, including the appeal of its message, its adaptability to different cultures, and the Roman Empire’s political and social structures.
One key factor that led to the eventual adoption of Christianity in the Roman Empire was the appeal of Christianity’s message of “spiritual comfort and certainty in both philosophy and religion”(UMGC,2024) This was particularly attractive to people living in a time of great social and political upheaval. Christianity offered a sense of hope and purpose in a world that was often chaotic and unpredictable. Another important factor was the internal flexibility of Christianity. “Christianity could take different forms for different people.”(UMGC,2024) This quote suggests that Christianity’s ability to adapt to different cultures and contexts was a key factor in its spread. The Roman Empire’s political and social structures also played a role in the spread of Christianity. The Roman Empire was a vast and complex society, and Christianity was able to take advantage of its existing infrastructure to spread its message.
5. Studying Ancient and Medieval African history presents multiple challenges, primarily due to diversity in sources, limitations of written records, and bias in available resources due to persistently problematic descriptive terms. The current movement to reclaim African history has employed new methods through diverse sources including oral histories, archaeology, and linguistics. Previously known as the “dark continent” due to a lack of European access to information through colonization, these sources give us valuable insights into the diverse and thriving cultures that have existed on the African continent for centuries.
The most contested sources of information are oral histories; however, these can often give us more insight than commonly accepted sources. Specific people were tasked with learning these records, cultural traditions, and played an incredibly important role in ancient African societies even advising kings and state leaders. African communities greatly value the older generations for these histories and traditions, and their inclusion in conducting research has widened understanding of these societies and cultures.
One of the main biases that we as historians need to be careful of when researching African histories is the persistent use of problematic and outdated language. Even today many scholars still refer to the early societies as “tribes,” which implies that African cultures were less advanced, wild, and dangerous, which is not universally the case. Highlighting the discriminatory nature of the word, the article quotes a historian contrasting the use of “tribal” for African society and “folk” for European, when in fact there is very little difference between their core civilization structures. Use of words like this perpetuates harmful stereotypes in research, dismisses divisions created by slave trades, and ignores the complexities of African political structures and social organization.
6.Between 1200 and 1450 CE, Great Zimbabwe was a thriving kingdom in southern Africa, known for its wealth, trade, and impressive stone architecture. The rulers of Great Zimbabwe controlled about 300 nearby settlements, each of which contributed goods like ivory, gold, cattle, and crops as tribute. This system of collecting valuable items made the rulers extremely wealthy and powerful. Charlottle Miller, author of “African History,” describes Great Zimbabwe as “the thriving commercial and political center of a rich southern African state.”^1 The tribute system also helped the settlements stay connected under the rule of the capital city. Trade played an important role in Great Zimbabwe’s success. The people exported goods like ivory and gold to coastal cities such as Sofala and Kilwa. From there, these items were traded with distant places, including the Persian Gulf, India, and China. Great Zimbabwe became famous as “a center of trade and artistry,”^1 reflecting its important place in the region and beyond. The architecture of Great Zimbabwe also showed the power and importance of its leaders. Covering three square miles, the ruins include famous stone structures like the Hill Complex and the Great Enclosure. The Great Enclosure, with its 35-foot-high walls, was the largest structure in precolonial sub-Saharan Africa. It may have been used for ceremonies or other special events, emphasizing the wealth and influence of the kingdom. The stone buildings built “without mortar,”^1 demonstrate the advanced skills of the people of Great Zimbabwe and the pride they took in their work as well.
7. The geography of Central Asia has played a significant role in shaping its history. Central Asia is a vast region with deserts, mountains, and steppes. This diverse landscape made it both a crossroads for trade and a challenging place to live and travel. The region is bordered by powerful empires, including China to the east, Russia to the north, and the Middle East to the west, which created both opportunities and conflicts throughout history.
One of the biggest impacts of the geography was the creation of the Silk Road, the ancient trade route that connected China with Europe. Central Asia’s location as a central point for these trade routes made it a hub for cultural exchange, spreading ideas, technology, and goods. However, this also meant that Central Asia was often caught in conflicts between neighboring empires trying to control the trade routes and the wealth they brought. For example, the Mongol Empire, under Genghis Khan, was able to conquer much of Central Asia due to its position as a meeting point between East and West (Whitfield, 1999).
Central Asia’s deserts and mountains also influenced the development of nomadic cultures. Many of the region’s people, such as the Turkic and Mongol groups, became skilled horse riders and herders, using the land’s challenges to their advantage. These nomadic societies often formed powerful empires, like the Timurids, which were built on military strength and mobility (Roux, 1992).
In conclusion, Central Asia’s geography made it a vital region for trade, but also a battleground for empires. Its landscape shaped the way people lived, traded, and interacted with neighboring civilizations.
8. Genghis khan unlike the previous leaders relied on something called aristocratic lineage while Genghis Khan promoted his people based on their abilities and loyalty, this approach helped him build a very loyal and strong following due to this strategy. Genghis was also a surprisingly good diplomat; he was good at forming strategic alliances through diplomacy and marriage which in turn allowed him to get the support of various tribes. He was also a charismatic leader, his charisma and reputation as a good warrior and leader, and due to these qualities, it inspired both loyalty and fear in the people, but these qualities were very significant, and they were crucial because it allowed him to have a better time uniting the Mongol tribes. Genghis also made both legal and social reforms one of them was that he established the Yassa which is a code of laws that was applied to all Mongols and due to this law and code it helped unify the tribes to be under a common law they all had to follow which in turn made it easier to rule them. Another thing that Genghis was good at was his military innovation, he reorganized the Mongol military and structure. He implemented something called the decimal system into his army, it divided his army into units of 10,100,1000, 10000, numbers like that, this reorganization made his armies more flexible and a lot more efficient.
9. In the eleventh century, several factors significantly contributed to the growth of towns in Western Europe. Key among these were the resurgence of trade, improvements in agricultural practices, and social transformations.
The revival of trade was a major driver of urban growth. Following a period of economic stagnation after the fall of the Roman Empire, Europe saw a return to stability, allowing trade routes to flourish again. Towns emerged as vibrant centers of commerce, attracting merchants and artisans who exchanged various goods. This boost in trade led towns to establish their own governing bodies to manage economic activities and maintain order. ¹
Agricultural advancements also played a crucial role. Innovations such as the three-field system increased crop yields, enabling farmers to produce more food. This surplus supported growing populations, prompting many people to move from rural areas to urban centers. The increased agricultural output stimulated local economies by creating demand for various goods and services. ²
Social changes further spurred urbanization. As feudalism began to decline, many serfs sought freedom in towns, which were seen as places of opportunity. The notion that “city air makes a man free” highlights how towns offered autonomy from feudal lords, making them attractive to those seeking a better life.
Nonetheless, the growth of towns in the eleventh century was driven by a combination of revived trade, agricultural improvements, and shifting social dynamics. These factors laid the groundwork for a more urbanized Europe, shaping its future development.
10. The Reconquista consisted of campaigns that lasted centuries, with the goal being reclamation of the Muslim ruled Iberian Peninsula by Christian rulers. These campaigns started in the early 8th century and ended in the year 1492 when Granada was conquered. The Reconquista had an impact of the culture and society of the Iberian Peninsula, along with the military impacts. Possibly more important is the religious impact it had. The Muslim rulers lost their influence and impact in the region, and the Christian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal were established. “Events in Iberia would eventually bring about several changes ushering in the end of Europe’s Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times. Portugal, Castile, and Aragon were steeped in the traditions of the Reconquista”. Spain and Portugal religious beliefs would go on to have global impacts that can still be seen today.
The Reconquista had a huge impact on the Muslims that lived in that region. Many were forced into exile, while some were forced to convert to Catholicism. Islam had for centuries been the dominant religion in that region, but with the Treaty of Granada, they handed over virtually all their powers. This treaty was supposed to grant religious tolerance to Muslims, but this did not last long. The Spanish rulers expelled the Moriscos, and with that, the culture of the Muslims that lived in that area was essentially gone forever. This marked the end of a flourishing era of Islamic science, art, and architecture in the region.
The Reconquista established the Christian kingdoms of Portugal and Spain. “In 1492 they completed the Reconquista by conquering Granada, the last Muslim territory in Spain. All of Spain was now under Christian rule, and the king and queen were eager to continue spreading their religion”. Portugal would later become an independent kingdom in 1139. The conquest of Granada in 1492 symbolized the culmination of their efforts and set the
stage for Spain’s emergence as a powerful, centralized state.
The Reconquista reshaped the Iberian Peninsula, removed Islamic rule, solidified Christianity as the region’s dominant religion, and set the stage for European exploration and expansion. Its legacy continues to influence Spanish and Portuguese identity today.
